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Are intralitter differences in the body weight important during weaning in lynx (Lynx lynx; Felidae, Mammalia)? – Akishina O. V., Antonevich A. L., and Naidenko S. V. – The transition from milk to solid food (weaning) is one of the critical stages of development of cubs. The role of differences in cubs’ size during weaning is unclear. It is not known whether the high competitive abilities of bigger cubs speed up this diet change or the low competitiveness of smaller siblings leads to the increased necessity of fast transition to solid food. The aim of this study was to reveal if there were differences in the weaning rate related to the size differences of lynx cubs. The duration and frequency of feeding were analyzed in 7 Eurasian lynx litters (16 cubs) during their weaning period (49 – 106 days of life). Despite of the permanent consistent differences in body weight in 6 from 7 litters, larger cubs did not differ significantly from smaller ones by the duration or frequency of sucking or meat eating. Thus, no significant differences in the features of transition to a meat diet in large and small cubs were revealed. Intralitter differences in weight mass do not affect the weaning speed.
Key words: Eurasian lynx, weaning, diet change, feeding behavior, intralitter differences, body mass, milk suckling.
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Changes of body weight and steroid hormones level during offspring growth in domestic cat females (Felis catus; Felidae, Mammalia). – Alekseeva G. S. and Naidenko S. V. – The physiological state of mammalian females during the period of offspring growth is insufficiently known. The aim of this study was to estimate changes in the steroid hormones level during lactation and to compare it with changes in the body weight of domestic cat females. The dynamics of such steroid hormones as estradiol, progesterone, testosterone and cortisol is described. A positive correlation between the estradiol and testosterone levels during the period of offspring growth was found out. A negative correlation between the dynamics of the cortisol level and body weight of females during lactation is shown. The results obtained enable us to consider the end of the first month of lactation as the period of the highest costs for the organism of domestic cat females.
Key words: steroid hormones, body mass, lactation, domestic cat.
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Symbionts associated with the sea star Culcita novaeguineae (Asteroidea: Oreasteridae) in the bay of Nhatrang, Vietnam. – Antokhina T. I. – In the course of our studies in the Bay of Nhatrang, Vietnam, on the sea star Culcita novaeguineae, nine species of symbionts were found: 3 polychaete species (Asterophilia culcitae, Hololepidella laingensis, Hololepidella millari), 1 gastropod species (Stilifer variabilis), 3 copepod species (Astroxynus culcitae, Stellicola oreastriphilus, Stellicola parvulipes), 1 shrimp species (Zenopontonia soror), and 1 fish species (Carapus mourlani). Two species (the polychaete H. laingensis and the gastropod S. variabilis) were recorded as symbionts of sea stars for the first time. Six symbionts species (H. laingensis, H. millari, S. variabilis, A. culcitae, S. oreastriphilus, and S. parvulipes) are new for the coastal waters of Vietnam. Of all the C. novaeguineae examined, 100% were infested, with an average number of symbionts per host being 74.2.
Key words: symbiotic assemblage, Asteroidea, Hololepidella, Zenopontonia soror, Stilifer variabilis.
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Soil macrofauna of floodplain biocenoses of the middle stream of the Bolshaya Kokshaga River (Republic of Mari El). – Bastrakov A. I., Rybalov L. B., and Vorobyova I. G. – The composition and distribution of soil-dwelling macrofauna were studied in the middle stream of the Bolshaya Kokshaga River (a left tributary of the Volga River). The abundance and biomass of macrofauna were dependent on the type of floodplain, flooding regime, and the location of the community in the landscape. The greatest variety and abundance of the soil macrofauna were recorded in all parts of the deciduous biocenoses floodplain, on well-formed soils with plenty of humus and favorable hydrothermal conditions along the whole river stream. The lowest abundance and diversity of soil marcofauna were marked in the communities on the terrace. The causes of these regularities are dry hydrothermal conditions and the poorness of sandy podzolic soils. On floodplains plots was dominated soil saprophagous and on the terrace in the trophic structure of soil was dominated by predatory and herbivorous groups of macrofauna. Ecological spectrum of species largely depended on hydrothermal conditions by specific plots.
Key words: floodplain, terrace, soil macrofauna, saprophagous.
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Shelter microclimate and distribution of bats (Chiroptera, Mammalia) in southern Vietnam. – Vasenkov D. A. and Rozhnov V. V. – The dynamics of the microclimatic characteristics of shelters and the specific composition of bats were estimated in three caves and a cavity in the Lagerstroemia caliculata trunk, the national park Cat Tien (Vietnam). The specific composition of bats differs not only between the «wood» and «cave» shelters, but also between closely spaced caves. Seasonal changes in the bat species were observed in caves.
Key words: ecology, bats, microclimate, shelters, bats, Vietnam.
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History of the trophic interactions of two benthic consumers: walrus and bearded seal (Carnivora, Mammalia). – Gorlova E. N. – The dynamics of the relative trophic levels of the walrus and bearded seal in benthic ecosystems of the Bering and Chukchi seas over the last 2,500 years was investigated using carbon and nitrogen stable isotope tracers. The positions of these species in the benthic food wed were significantly different for the whole time period. The bearded seal occupied a higher trophic level relative to the walrus throughout the late Holocene.
Key words: walrus, bearded seal, trophic structure, stable isotope, interspecific competition.
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Symbiosis between gastropods (Gastropoda, Eulimidae) and echinoderms (Echinodermata). – Dgebuadze P. Yu. – During several expeditions in South Vietnam (Bay of Nha Trang, South-China Sea) the species composition of gastropods from the Eulimidae family was studied. Thirty five species were found, seventeen of them being new for the Vietnamese fauna. Literature data were summarized; the most preferred host species of echinoderms (on the examples of crinoids, starfishes, and sea urchins) were identified for several eulimid species.
Key words: gastropods, symbiotic communities, echinoderms, South Vietnam.
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Morphological distinctions of the retina and pigment epithelium in the Colubridae and Viperidae snake families (on examples of Hierophis caspius, Natrix natrix, and Pelias berus). – Zhelankin R. V. – The morphology of the pigment epithelium (PE) and the retina of three snake species: grass snake (Natrix natrix), large whip snake (Hierophis caspius), and common viper (Pelias berus) was investigated by light microscopy on histological sections and flat retina preparations with PE. The retina and the majority of its layers in the Colubrids (large whip snake) are 1.8 times thicker (on average) than in the Viperids (common viper). The photoreceptors and PE cells in P. berus are smaller and arranged more densely than in N. natrix while the retinal ganglion cells are larger. The photoreceptors in both the species can be divided into large and small (p < 0.001). The proportion of small ones in P. berus is higher (27.7%) than in N. natrix (15.4%). The photoreceptor densities in P. berus did not differ from those in N. natrix on average.
Key words: snakes, retina, photoreceptors.
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Influence of early olfactory experience on predator odor perception in the house mouse (Mus musculus L.; Muridae, Mammalia). – Klinov A. B., Kvasha I. G., and Voznessenskaya V. V. – We studied the influence of daily exposures of C57BL/6J mice pups to domestic cat chemical signals (cat urine or L-felinine) within the critical period of olfactory system development (the 14 – 28th days after birth) on the investigatory and passive-avoidance behavior patterns development in the presence of target odors in adulthood in an «open field» test. Early olfactory experience significantly decreased the indices of passive-avoidance behavior and emotional reactivity but raised the investigatory activity in adult mice in our «open field» test in the presence of target predator chemosignals.
Key words: chemical communication, house mouse, investigatory behavior, domestic cat, L-felinine.
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Preference for social odors in laboratory mice (Mus musculus L.; Muridae, Mammalia) with different olfactory sensitivity to volatile steroids. – Klyuchnikova M. A. and Voznessenskaya V. V. – A possible relationship was studied between the olfactory sensitivity to androstenone as the sexual boar pheromone and the inability to discriminate sex and social rank of conspecifics in the NZB/B1NJ, CBA/J strains and outbred laboratory mice. According to our results, a low olfactory sensitivity to androstenone in the NZB/CBA model and in outbred male mice may be associated with a male’s disrupted preference for an estrus female odors.
Key words: house mouse, chemical communication, androstenone.
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Food composition of the crab-invader Rhitropanopeus harrisii (Panopeidae, Brachyura, Decapoda) in the Vistula bay of the Baltic Sea. – Kolesnichenko A. I., Burukovsky R. N., and Marin I. N. – The size-age structure and nutrition of the crab-invader Rhitropanopeus harrisii were studied in the Vistula lagoon, the Baltic Sea, and compared with the nutrition of the non-indigenous shrimp Palaemon elegans, widespread in the Baltic. It is shown that the basic share in the food lump volume of R. harrisii is vegetation residues, detritus, the remains of insects and crustaceans, similar to other areas of its range. This crab is able to combine or easily change its ways of obtaining food, from detritophaging and microphaging to active predation and grazing.
Key words: Rhitropanopeus, invader, Vistula lagoon, Baltic Sea.
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Histology of the proboscis wall and possible mechanisms of feeding of mollusks from the subfamily Colinae (Buccinidae: Gastropoda). – Kosyan A. R. – We studied the histological structure of the proboscis wall of 15 species of the buccinid subfamily Colinae. The proboscis wall has a varied structure which may differ even in the species of the same genus. Typical structure was represented by two thin layers of muscles, the outer circular and the inner longitudinal. This basic type was found in Retifusus parvus, R. jessoensis, and Retimohnia bella, the first one probably using some venom to immobilize the prey. The thickening or development of additional muscle layers and connective tissue, found in other studied species of the genera Plicifusus, Colus, Latisipho, and Aulacofusus, may be caused by heavy mechanical loads to the proboscis while feeding. Although the proboscis structure reflects the peculiarities of feeding mechanism rather than phylogenetic relationships, it may be used as systematic character on a specific level.
Key words: buccinids, gastropods, Colinae, digestive system, feeding, predation, anatomy, proboscis.
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Noninvasive population size estimation and a study of the home range of the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica Temminck, 1844; Felidae, Mammalia) in the southwest Primorye. – Krasnenko A. Ju. and Sorokin P. A. – The population size of an isolated Amur tiger group in the southwest Primorye was estimated by applying noninvasive genetic methods from December, 2011 till March, 2012. The possibility of application of the DNA extracted from the faecal, blood and hair for individual identification and assessment of the size and overlap of home ranges is shown.
Key words: Amur tiger, noninvasive genetic methods, population size estimation, microsatellites.
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Seasonal changes in body weight, hormons and behavior in hamster males (Allocricetulus; Cricetidae, Mammalia) – Kuznetzova E. V., Kropotkina M. V., Feoktistova N. Yu., and Surov A. V. – Comparison of seasonal dynamics of body weight, sexual steroids (testosterone, progesterone) and glucocorticoid (cortizol) in males of two close related species Allocricetulus was carried out. Animals were maintained under natural light and temperature regime in cages protected from rain and snow. It is shown that seasonal changes are characteristic for all studied parameters. Thus dynamics of body weight in both species is similar – the weight raises during the spring-summer period and goes down by the fall. Increase of testosterone concentration is dated for a reproduction season. However level and dynamics of a progesterone and cortisol are differed: cortisol concentration of Mongolian hamster is significantly lower during all seasons and rises in winter. While Eversman hamster preserves high level of it within the year, except of July. Progesterone level at Eversman hamster is changed by seasons a little, but the Mongolian hamster has strongly pronounced lifting during the spring-and-summer period. We suppose that the revealed distinctions in a greater degree are connected with social behavior, including paternal care which is shown by males of the Mongolian and absent in Eversman hamster, than with climatic factors.
Key words: Allocricetulus curtatus, A. eversmanni, seasonal biology, testosterone, progesterone, cortisol, social behavior.
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Abundance dynamics and population structure of the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi A. Agassiz, 1865 (Mnemiopsida, Tentaculata) in the coastal zone of the Northeastern Black Sea. – Louppova N. E. – As a result of our study of the abundance dynamics and size structure of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi population by year-round regular underwater observations, data were obtained of the life cycle and reproduction timing of this species in the coastal zone of the Northeast Black Sea. The periods of mass appearance and disappearance of Mnemiopsis in the coastal zone and the period of maximum numbers were determined. Possible mechanisms that regulate the abundance and size composition of the population are discussed.
Key words: Mnemiopsis leidyi, seasonal dynamics, size structure, reproduction, Black Sea.
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Relation between grooming and fur morphology in the Russian desman (Desmana moschata L.; Talpidae, Soricomorpha). – Makhotkina K. A., Ivlev Y. F., and Rutovskaya M. V. – The grooming duration and frequency are closely connected with the morphological structure of the Russian desman’s fur. For the front part of the body, which undergoes most hydrostatic and hydrodynamic effects when an animal is swimming or diving, the shortest thick hair with the maximum density is characterized. Such hair is most waterproof and has structural stability, which requires less grooming. The average hair length and thickness and the maximum grooming intensity are characteristic for such body areas which are probably more exposed to mechanical impacts. At the most mobile parts of an animal’s fur, local violations of the waterproof and thermal insulation properties occurs when the animal is moving, their restoration being only possible by grooming.
Key words: Russian desman, fur morphology, grooming.
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Karyotypic variant diversity in the common shrew Sorex araneus (Eulipotyphla, Mammalia) in European Russia. – Pavlova S. V., Tumasian Ph. A., and Shchipanov N. A. – New data about the distribution of several chromosomal races (Moscow, Mologa, Poyakonda, and Serov) were obtained by using cytogenetic analysis of the common shrew (Sorex araneus Linnaeus, 1758) karyotypes from 14 new localities in European Russia. In particular, it is demonstrated that a part of the Moscow race area is separated from the main one by other races (Mologa, Kirillov, and Manturovo). Several types of chromosomal polymorphism were revealed within the populations of the Poyakonda (g/r, i/p) and Moscow (j/l, j – l) races. The territory of the Darvin Reserve is occupied by the Moscow race, while the Serov race inhabits the Denezhkin Kamen Reserve; so these data help us to use our pool of previously collected data about features of the common shrew ecology to characterize general patterns of ecology of a certain chromosomal race. The results allow us to discuss a number of questions about the formation of races in the past as well as of the current distribution of chromosomal races of the common shrew S. araneus.
Key words: karyotypic variability, chromosomal polymorphism, distribution, Sorex araneus.
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Choice of life history strategy by juvenile Black Sea Salmon Salmo trutta labrax (Salmonidae, Pisces) at several durations of dwelling at the bottom and in the water bulk. – Ponomareva V. Yu. – The hatchery-reared juvenile of the Black Sea brown trout (Salmo trutta labrax) at an age of 5.5 months was separated into two spatial groups, the demersal and pelagic ones. The influence of dwelling without access to the bottom on the choice of life strategy by territorial juvenile of the Black Sea Salmon was experimentally explored. It is shown that dwelling during 3.5 months in the water bulk increases the probability of the choice of the anadromous life strategy, while one month is not enough for this purpose. Differences in the probability of the choice of life strategy between the groups are formed during the period from 1.0 to 3.5 months of dwelling without access to the bottom.
Key words: : the Black Sea salmon, rheoreaction, underyearlings, differentiation, groups.
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Population variability of the crested auklet, Aethia cristatella (Alcidae, Charadriiformes). – Pshenichnikova O. S., Sorokin P. A., and Klenova A. V. – The crested auklet (Aethia cristatella Pallas, 1769) is a small planktivorous seabird breeding at remote islands and along the coastline of the North Pacific. The aim of this study was to determine the population structure of crested auklets by using analysis of its morphometric and genetic variability (two types of genetic markers). Samples collected at five sites of the Bering Sea and at three sites of the Sea of Okhotsk were analyzed. Genetic analysis of a mitochondrial control region fragment (408 b.p.) and four microsatellite loci was performed. The weight, wing length, bill length and depth, crest length, and auricular plume length were used as morphometric variables. Only slight differences between different populations were found out, by either genetic or morphometric variables. Obviously there is no isolation between the colonies of crested auklets. As for adult auklets high level of nest fidelity well documented, we suppose that gene flow could be realized by movements of young birds.
Key words: seabirds, auks, crested auklet, population structure, microsatellite, mitochondrial DNA, morphometric differentiation, level of dispersion.
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The ecology and conservation of Red-Breasted Goose (Branta ruficollis Pallas, 1769; Anatidae, Aves): the use of new methods to study migrations. – Rozenfeld S. B. and Vangeluwe D. – To reveal key places of the habitat and the migration path geography, 21 red-breasted gooses were tagged on their breeding places (the Gydan and Taimir peninsulas) by GSM Ecotone (Poland) transmitters. Counts and distribution studies within the migration stopovers (Dvuobie, Northern Kazakhstan, Kumo-Manytch depression) were carried out by the use of light aviation according to the data gotten from the tagged birds. New data on the behavior, molting pattern, migration routes, stopovers, and the wintering range were obtained. Key sites within the habitat were found and the conservation status of the species was estimated.
Key words: Anseriformes, Red-breasted goose, bird’s migrations, conservation of rare bird species.
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Comparative analysis of bird populations causing damages of various technical objects. – Sapunkova N. Yu. – In the course of our ecologo-ornithological surveys of the vicinity of the airports Sheremetievo (2003) and Domodedovo (2008, 2011), and the Kursk nuclear power station (2009), the specific and number composition, the seasonal dynamics of the avifauna distribution on these areas were revealed. The avifaunas of these objects were compared. Factors influencing the attractiveness of the objects for birds were revealed in the surveyed sites, there are the availability of nesting places, the presence of readily available food near or within, and the unavailability of the objects for carnivores.
Key words: seasonal dynamics of bird populations, biodamage, collisions of birds with planes.
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Daily activity of the European badger (Meles meles Linnaeus, 1758) (Mustelidae, Mammalia) at settlements in several populations of European Russia. – Sidorchuk N. V., Volchenko A. E., and Rozhnov V. V. – The European badger (Meles meles) daily activity was studied in two populations (northwestern and south regions of European Russia) with the aid of camera traps. The badgers of the northern population more often came out from their settlements in day-time. Possible causes are climate features (day temperatures) and the anthropogenic load degree.
Key words: Meles meles, daily activity, camera trap, Vologda region, Krasnodar region.
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The relationship between biodiversity of symbiotic community and host’s size in the case of the sponge Haliclona fascigera (Demospongiae: Haplosclerida) and its inhabitants. – Sokolova A. M. and Marin I. N. – The community of macroscopic animals associated with Haliclona fascigera in the Nhatrang Bay (Vietnam) is represented by at least 28 species, 10 of which are obligate sponge-dwellers. The number of such species positively correlates with the volume of the host while Shannon’s index does not. It can be supposed that inhabitants of small sponges form complete community as well as large-hosts dwellers because of specific sponge symbionts contribution.
Key words: Porifera, Haliclona fascigera, symbiosis, sponge-associated animals, Vietnam.
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Macroinvertebrate assocations of sponges (Demospongiae: Spongillidae) from some fresh waters in the Palaearctic. – Sokolova A. M. and Palatov D. M. – The specific composition of macroscopic invertebrates associated with freshwater sponges was identified (113 species). Several types of species complexes associated with freshwater sponges were revealed on the basis of the population metabolic intensity. Factors influencing their appearance and structure are discussed. The predominant assemblage species have a trophic relation to the sponge of a varying degree of expression.
Key words: benthic assemblages, freshwater sponges, associated fauna.
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Characteristics of paleosoils and pedosediments of prehistoric man sites in the Dzoraget river basin (Armenia). – Stolpnikova E. M. and Kovaleva N. O. – The Pleistocene paleosoils and pedosediments of Paleolithic sites on the Lori plateau (Armenian upland) were formed by direct volcanism impact, being the tephra-soil series. The content of inorganic phosphorus and the magnetic susceptibility well mark volcanic activity stages (activation and decay). The isotopic composition of organic carbon has shown other conditions of organic matter accumulation in the early Pleistocene as compared to modern conditions.
Key words: paleosol, pedosediment, carbon isotope composition, Pleistocene, Paleolithic.
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Behavioral and area-usage changes of Mesocricetus raddei (Cricetidae, Mammalia) while reducing its population density. – Chunkov M. M., Ushakova M. V., Omarov K. Z., Fritzsche P., and Surov A. V. – On the example of the CisCaucasian hamster Mesocricetus raddei the influence of a decreased population density on the character of territory usage and the spatial-ethological structure is shown. At a low population density, hamsters scarcely defend their home ranges, a system of burrows being used by several individuals simultaneously. However, a decrease in territorialism leads to significant expansion of the used territory and a decreased aggressiveness in social interactions.
Key words: density, spatial-ethological structure, CisCaucasian hamster, agrolandscapes.
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Mating systems of the bluethroat (Luscinia svecica; Turdidae, Aves) in the Saratov Trans-Volga region. – Batova O. N. and Nemchenko L. A. – As a result of our 4-year observation of individually marked birds, various mating systems in the bluethroat were studied. In addition to social monogamy there are two another mating systems, presented annually in the population: sequential and simultaneous polygamy. The ratio of these mating systems depends on the spatial distribution of a nesting population. The results are discussed in terms of reproductive strategies.
Key words: Luscinia svecica, mating system, population density, reproductive strategy.
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Noninvasive assessment of the female reproductive status in the wild Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica; Felidae, Mammalia). – Ivanov E. A., Sorokin P. A., Hernandez-Blanco J. A., Lukarevskii V. S., Rozhnov V. V., and Naidenko S. V. – Pseudopregnancy complicates pregnancy diagnostics depended on progesterone levels in female felids, especially in the wild. However, progesterone level still can be a useful tool to assess reproductive activity in wild felids populations. Due to long-term pseudopregnancy and induced ovulation, which are predominant in Felidae, high progesterone levels can be used to distinguish copulated females. Noninvasive hormonal assessment coupled with noninvasive genetical identification allows us exploring reproduction activity by assessing copulated females numbers with a high accuracy. We validated a progesterone EIA kit («Immunofa-PG», Immunotech, Russian Federation) for noninvasive hormonal analysis by comparing immunoreactivity associated with antibodies in feces of one female of Amur tiger collected during pregnancy and after accouchement. We also run a preliminary study in the wild. Amur tiger feces were collected in the Russian Far East in February, 2011. For each sample (n = 28) the sex and individuality were identified. Samples from females were assessed for fecal progestagens. Our analysis revealed 3 (of 11) females having high progesterone and thus copulated within one month before our sample collection.
Key words: Amur tiger, reproduction activity, pseudopregnancy.
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New data on the distribution of the secret toadhead agama (Phrynocephalus mystaceus; Reptilia: Agamidae) on the territory of Kalmykia. – Neymark L. A. – Data on the modern distribution of the secret toadhead agama and its population density in Kalmykia are presented. The density dynamics in several parts of the surveys area is discussed.
Key words: Phrynocephalus mystaceus, distribution, abundance.
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Chromosomal hybrid zones of the common shrew Sorex araneus (Eulipotyphla, Mammalia) in Russia. – Pavlova S. V. and Nadjafova R. S. – With no use of genetic techniques in modern studies, essential information on the intraspecific geographical, ecological and taxonomic structure of species may well be lost. Of the mammals of the domestic fauna, the common shrew (Sorex araneus Linnaeus, 1758) is characterized by an incredible level of its karyotype variability and inter- and intrapopulation chromosome polymorphism, so the species range is subdivided into many intraspecific parapatric chromosomal races. This paper summarizes our and literature data on the diversity, range boundaries and contact zones of these chromosomal races in Russia. A list of hybrid karyotypes between 13 (from 25 known) chromosomal races occurred in 14 hybrid zones in Russia has been compiled.
Key words: karyotype, natural hybridization, parapatric races, intraspecific variability.
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On the predatory and omnivorous nematodes in Moscow and the Moscow region. – Tabolin S. B. – Soil samples were collected from several locations in Moscow and the Moscow region during 2011 – 2013. The most widespread predatory nematodes in the collected samples were Clarkus papillatus, Coomansus parvus, Mylonchulus brachyuris, M. sigmaturus, M. sexcristatus, Prionchulus punctatus, Tigronchoides ginglymodontus, and Anatonchus tridentatus. The predatory nematode Tigronchoides ginglymodontus was found in Russia for the first time. Omnivorous nematodes were mainly represented by Ecumenicus monohystera, Eudorylaimus acuticauda, E. brevis, E. carteri, and Enchodelus macrodorus. The mixotrophic species Aporcelaimellus medius was recorded in Russia for the first time. A comprehensive list of predatory and omnivorous nematode species observed in the region was compiled for the first time.
Key words: nematodes, fauna, predators, omnivores.
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Differentiation and joining of herds of the released European bison – Bison bonasus (Bovidae, Mammalia) at reintroduction. – Chikurova E. A. – Reintroduction of the European bison into its natural habitats is an important problem in the context of the species’ conservation. Animals’ accommodation to a new place takes significant time, and the European bisons released from zoos and breeding centers show different behavior from aboriginal European bison, or the animales after adaptation. We have developed a model of the behavior and schooling of bison herds during accommodation after release. Newly released bison groups divide shortly after release (an unsuccessful case): single animals can separate from the group and remain alone, which may well result in their death due to poor adaptation to the local environment, wolves, and poaching. They may also come to settlements and join domestic cow herds. On the contrary, the animals in a well harmonious group keep together, and newly released bisons join them. A mature active female is a potential leader should present in well harmonized group. During several years after release such a group will grow by both reproduction and joining newly released bisons. Single males appear in 5 – 15 years after release. It is likely to happen when first wild-born offspring males have grown. Approx. at the same time or one-two years earlier a big group divides into smaller maternal herds and bachelor groups. These herds are likely to re-aggregate in the case of limited resources. Migrant males (animals going many kilometers away from their maternal herd) appear 15 – 25 years later. Females associate with these migrant males several years later. Therefore, the adaptation, division and schooling process of released herds starts 5 – 15 years after their release and lasts up to 25 – 30 years after release.
Key words: European bison, Bovidae, hoofed animals, reintroduction, ethology, endangered species.
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